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EBS 262 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN BASIC SCHOOLS
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- EBS 262 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN BASIC SCHOOLS
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Sir please there is not content on this course. And no PDF as well..ANYETEI ANGELEY
EBC 126- COMMUNICATION SKILLS5
GoodMICHAEL AGGREY
EBC 126- COMMUNICATION SKILLS5
GoodABAKAH MONICA
UNIT 3: LEARNING
Dear student nice to meet you once again. We hope you are enjoying your lessons. We now welcome you to Unit 3. You are to read the learning outcome and indicators below
Indicators:
The student will be able to:
– Differentiate among the three categories of learning (cognitive learning, effective learning and psychomotor learning)
– Describe the pedagogical implications each of the three categories of learning.
– Differentiate among the three major theories of learning
– Describe the pedagogical implications each of the three major theories of learning.
The information below will assist you
3.1 Who is a good Learner?
Is someone who understands that the reason for studying is not to fulfill an obligation or to pass a test. You study for yourself. For this reason, a good learner will always keep on learning because he will always want to know more. Not only that. But a good learner will want to use what he/she has learned.
Some Qualities of a good learner:
These include: Discipline, Building Relationships, Asking Relevant Questions, Sense of Respect, Taking Responsibility, Participating in Extra Curricular Activities, Searching Knowledge, Working Hard, Punctuality, Attentive to Lesson, Self Confidence, Positive Attitude, Setting up Aim, A Good Listener, Having Smartness, Good Manners, Having Seriousness, Excellent Organizer, Simplicity of Mind, Keeping Updating, Having Commitment, Ambitious, and
Academic Competencies
What is learning?
3.2 What is Learning?
The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior. As a result of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the world differently.
Mention and discuss any principles of Learning Science
3.3 Principles of learning:
To teach effectively, the teacher must understand the basic principles of learning. Based on the different concepts of the learning process and the laws that govern them, the following general principles of learning are presented for guidance in teaching:
3.4 Two Mains Ways of Learning
3.4.1 What is deductive Learning?
A deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach. This means that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then has the students practice using the concept.
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a “top-down” approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.
3.4.2 What is Inductive Learning?
In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of student “noticing”. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples, the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works.
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a “bottom up” approach (please note that it’s “bottom up” and not “bottoms up” which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he’s trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
3.4.3 How can a teacher decide which method is the best choice for a given topic?
Both deductive and inductive sequences are valuable for teaching concepts, generalizations, processes, and skills. The teacher must decide which to select given the learning outcomes desired and the composition of the class. When choosing, the teacher should consider a number of factors:
Instructional methods tend to be either deductive or inductive, although some methods use both. Many lessons can include both approaches.
3.4.4 Difference between Inductive and Deductive Approach:
evidence
conclusions
probable conclusions about evidence that has been observed.
specific
general
3.5 Categories of learning
The Three Levels of the Mind and the domains of learning
Learning is everywhere. We can learn mental skills, develop our attitudes and acquire new physical skills as we perform the activities of our daily living. These domains of learning can be categorized as cognitive domain (knowledge), psychomotor domain (skills) and affective domain (attitudes). This categorization is best explained by the Taxonomy of Learning Domains formulated by a group of researchers led by Benjamin Bloom in 1956.
3.5.1 Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain involves the development of our mental skills and the acquisition of knowledge. The six categories under this domain are:
Example: A child recites the English alphabet.
Example: A teacher explains a theory in his own words.
Example: A nurse intern applies what she learned in her Psychology class when she talks to patients.
Example: A lawyer was able to win over a case after recognizing logical fallacies in the reasoning of the offender.
Examples: A therapist combines yoga, biofeedback and support group therapy in creating a care plan for his patient.
Examples: A businessman selects the most efficient way of selling products.
3.5.2 Affective Domain
The affective domain involves our feelings, emotions and attitudes. This domain is categorized into 5 subdomains, which include:
Example: Listening attentively to a friend.
Example: Participating in a group discussion.
Example: An activist shares his ideas on the increase in salary of labourers.
Example: A teenager spends more time in her studies than with her boyfriend.
Example: A man marries a woman not for her looks but for what she is.
3.5.3 Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain is comprised of utilizing motor skills and coordinating them. The seven categories under this include:
Example: A cook adjusts the heat of stove to achieve the right temperature of the dish.
Example: An obese person displays motivation in performing planned exercise.
Example: A person follows the manual in operating a machine.
Example: A mother was able to cook a delicious meal after practicing how to cook it.
Example: Typing a report on a computer without looking at the keyboard.
Example: A designer uses plastic bottles to create a dress.
Example: A choreographer creates a new dance routine.
3.5.4 Implication to teaching and learning
Developing and delivering lessons by teachers are integral in the teaching process. It is hence important for teachers to ensure that the three (3) domains of learning which include cognitive (thinking), affective (emotions or feeling) and psychomotor (physical or kinesthetic) to be achieved. It is imperative to understand that there are different categories of learners who have varying needs and as such different methods must be adopted in the planning and delivery of lessons to ensure that such needs are addressed. The world of education has gradually adopted the strategy of ‘Every child matters’ structure that requires that all learners with different needs are counted.
3.5.5 Pedagogical implications of the three domains of learning
❖ The content below will guide you
3.6 CONSTRUCTIVIST, BEHAVIOURAL AND COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
3.6.1 CONSTRUCTIVISM (John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky)
Constructivism is an educational learning theory that places emphasis on students’ role in learning through a guided means by the teacher to enable them construct their own understanding of materials or concepts through mental models and exposure to hands-on experiences. Fundamentally, constructivism says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
The Learning Cycle or “5 E’s”characterizes the constructivist theory of learning
Engage……Explore………Explain………Extend………..Evaluate
The Five Es Instructional Model (Constructivism)
Please note that there are two groups of constructivism (the social and the cognitive)
3.6.2 Pedagogical Implications of Constructivism Theory
The chart that follows outlines teacher and student behaviors within the 5 E model.
• Reading
• Free Write
• Analyze a Graphic
Organizer
• KWL
• Brainstorming
• Generates curiosity.
• Raises questions.
• Elicits responses that uncover what the students know or think about the concept/topic.
• Shows interest in the topic.
Investigation
• Read Authentic Resources to Collect Information
• Solve a Problem
• Construct a Model
• Observes and listens to the students as they interact.
• Asks probing questions to redirect the students’ investigations when necessary.
• Provides time for students to puzzle through problems.
• Tests predictions and
hypotheses.
• Forms new predictions and hypotheses.
• Tries alternatives and
discusses them with others.
• Records observations and ideas.
• Suspends judgement.
• Supporting Ideas with Evidence
• Structured
Questioning
• Reading and
Discussion
• Teacher Explanation
• Thinking Skill Activities: compare, classify, error analysis
• Asks for justification (evidence) and clarification from students.
• Formally provides
definitions, explanations, and new labels.
• Uses students’ previous experiences as basis for explaining concepts.
• Listens officially to others’
explanations.
• Questions others’
explanations.
• Listens to and tries to comprehend explanations the teacher offers.
• Refers to previous activities.
• Uses recorded observations in explanations.
• Decision Making
• Experimental
Inquiry
• Reminds the students of alternative explanations.
• Refers the students to
existing data and evidence and asks, What do you already know? Why do you think…?
• Strategies from Explore apply here also.
• Draws reasonable conclusions from evidence.
• Records observations and explanations.
• Checks for understandings among peers.
• Develop a Scoring
Tool or Rubric
• Test
• Performance
Assessment
• Produce a Product
• Journal Entry
• Portfolio
skills.
• Assesses students’
knowledge and/or skills.
• Looks for evidence that the students have changed their thinking or behaviors.
• Allows students to assess
their own learning and group- process skills.
• Asks open-ended questions,
such as: Why do you think…? What evidence do you have? What do you know about x? How would you explain x?
• Demonstrates an understanding or knowledge of the concept or skill.
• Evaluates his or her own progress and knowledge.
• Asks related questions that
would encourage future investigations.
3.6.3 Cognitive Constructivism Approach to Teaching (Piaget, Brunner)
Firstly, you must present examples and non-examples of the concepts you are teaching
Examples:
Give examples that include people, kangaroos, whales, cats, dolphins, and camels as examples, and chickens, fish, alligators, frogs, and penguins as non-examples
Secondly, help students see connections among concepts.
Examples:
What else could you call this apple?” (Fruit)
“What do we do with fruit?” (Eat)
What do we call things we eat? (Food)
Thirdly, pose a question and let students try to find the answer.
Examples:
Fourthly, encourage students to make intuitive guesses.
Examples:
Social constructivism characteristics (Vygotsky)
There are 4 tools for making this happen, the tools are: scaffolding, cognitive apprenticeship, tutoring and cooperative learning
Summary
The Theory
According to constructivist theory,
Benefits
Criticisms
Learning Techniques
Assessment techniques
Characteristics /roles of the constructivist teacher
Role of the student/learner in the constructivist classroom
Characteristics of a constructivist classroom
Possible learning activities in the constructivist classroom
3.6.4 Pedagogical Implications of Constructivist Theory to the teaching and learning of science
Constructivist classrooms should be structured so that learners are immersed in experiences within which they may engage in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection.
Teachers need to recognize how people use their own experiences, prior knowledge and perceptions, as well as their physical and interpersonal environments to construct knowledge and meaning.
The goal is to produce a democratic classroom environment that provides meaningful learning experiences for autonomous learners.
It is worth suggesting that there may be many ways of interpreting or understanding the world. Thus, the teacher is no longer seen as an expert, who knows the answers to the questions she or he has constructed, while the students are asked to identify their teacher’s constructions rather than to construct their own meanings.
In a constructivist classroom, students are encouraged to use prior experiences to help them form and reform interpretations.
Applying constructivism in the classroom
Differences between the constructivist’s classroom and the traditional classroom
Emphasizes basic skills
Materials
students already know
negotiates with students
role
experiences
Drawbacks of the use of the constructivist approach to the teaching of science
3.6.5 THE BEHAVIOURISTS LEARNING THEORY (BEHAVIOURISM)
Behaviourism (B. F. Skinner, E. Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, Clark Hull & B. Watson) – built upon
Ivan Pavlov’s theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Behaviourism is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviourists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviours (acquisition of new behaviours)
A behaviorist theory is based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end.
This school of thought suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are too subjective.
Learning is really about the increased probability of a behaviour based on reinforcement which has taken place in the past, so that the antecedents of the new behaviour include the consequences of previous behaviour
There are two major types of conditioning:
Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behaviour through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence.
The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behaviour (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations)
Reinforcement comes in two forms: positive and negative.
Positive and Negative Reinforcers
Example 1: A dog trainer giving a dog a biscuit when she performs a trick;
Example 2: A father providing his child with a piece of candy for picking up his toys;
Example 1: Removing obstacles to autonomy (e.g., rigid timelines or prescribed ways of carrying out tasks) when an employee successfully completes an important project.
Example 1: Abolishing the practice of clocking in and out when employees have proven they can be trusted to accurately report their time worked.
The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase.
Positive and Negative Punishment
Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows.
Example 1: Yelling at a child for bad behaviour.
Example 2: Assigning students who forget to turn in their assignment extra work
Example 1: A child kicks a peer (behaviour), and is removed from his/her favourite activity (reinforcing stimulus removed)
Example 2: A child fights with her brother (behaviour) and has her favourite toy taken away (reinforcing stimulus removed).
The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease.
What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e.g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response.
Operant conditioning is similar to classical conditioning in that both are concerned with how we can teach others how to behave
Principles of behaviourism by B. F. Skinner
o Repetition
o Small, concrete, progressively sequenced tasks
o Positive and negative reinforcement
o Consistency in the use of reinforcers during the teaching-learning process
Criticisms of Behaviourism
Strengths of Behaviourism
3.6.6 Pedagogical Implications of Behaviorism Theory to the Teaching and Learning of Science
Role/characteristics of the science teacher in the behaviorist classroom
Role/characteristics of the student in the behaviorist classroom
How does learning take place in the behaviorist classroom?
B.F. Skinner (Known for operant conditioning)
Pavlov (Known for classical conditioning).
Thorndike
The “law of effect” states that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened.
Thorndike later revised this “law” when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
The “law of exercise” held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
Also Thorndike maintained that a skill should be introduced when a learner is conscious of their need for it as a means of satisfying some useful purpose. Regarding material, Skinner specified that to teach well, a teacher must decide exactly what it is they want to teach – only then can they present the right material, know what responses to look for and hence when to give reinforcement that usefully shapes behaviour.
Watson
Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.
Relevance of behaviorism to the teaching of science
Possible learning activities in the behaviorist classroom
There should be:
Implications of behaviorism in the Science Classroom
When designing lessons from a behaviorist stance, the designer (teacher) should:
✓ Analyze the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks should be broken down into smaller tasks and learning objectives developed from them.
✓ Evaluation should consist of determining whether the criterion for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer should decide what is important for the learner to know and attempt to transfer that knowledge to the learner.
✓ The learning package should be somewhat of a closed system, though it can allow for some branching and remediation, the learner should be confined to the designer’s “world”.
Strengths of behaviourism
The strength of instructional design grounded in behaviorism is that:
upon achieving those goals whenever there are cues to prompt the learner’s
behaviour.
Weaknesses of behaviourism
Classical conditioning can occur unintentionally. Too frequent exposure to humiliation, failure, or other negative feedback may lower in individual’s self-confidence and lead to withdrawal. For example, if a child is constantly corrected during a reading exercise, the child’s feelings of humiliation may ultimately be replaced by a fear of reading aloud. Eventually whenever the teacher announces read-aloud-time, the child may withdraw or begin exhibiting undesirable behaviour. For this reason, it is important for teachers to be careful or prepare their students very well when engaging in such potentially “risky” activities in the classroom; it is important to minimize embarrassment or disappointment in the case of failure.
Operant conditioning is similar to classical conditioning in that both are concerned with how we can teach others how to behave. Operant conditioning adds the concept of a reinforcer or a reward. The basic idea of operant conditioning is that behaviours which are followed by something pleasurable will be reinforced; the reinforcement will result in the behaviour being repeated (Ormrod & Rice, 2003, p. 68). Operant conditioning can occur effectively at all levels of development including early adulthood providing that a suitable reinforcer can be identified for the individuals. To better understand the implications of this behaviour theory, it is also important to understand the following terms: baseline behaviour, terminal behaviour, shaping, and extinction.
3.6.7 THE COGNITIVIST LEARNING THEORY (COGNITIVISM)
Cognitivism (Jean Piaget, Robert Gagne, Lev Vygotsky)
Cognitivism is “the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually” (Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge
Theory of the cognitivist
The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer).
Cognitivism focuses on the “brain”. How humans process and store information is very important in the process of learning.
➢ Input first enters a sensory register,
➢ Then is processed in short-term memory, and
➢ Then is transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval.
Sensory Register – receives input from senses which lasts from less than a second to four seconds and then disappears through decay or replacement. Much of the information never reaches short term memory but all information is monitored at some level and acted upon if necessary.
Short-Term Memory (STM) – sensory input that is important or interesting is transferred from the sensory register to the STM. Memory can be retained here for up to 20 seconds or more if rehearsed repeatedly. Short-term memory can hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. STM capacity can be increased if material is chunked into meaningful parts.
Long-Term Memory and Storage (LTM) – stores information from STM for long term use. Long-term memory has unlimited capacity. Some materials are “forced” into LTM by rote memorization and over learning.
Deeper levels of processing such as generating linkages between old and new information are much better for successful retention of material.
Factors that influence learning
✓ Meaningful Effects – Meaningful information is easier to learn and remember. If a learner links relatively meaningless information with prior schema it will be easier to retain.
✓ Serial Position Effects – It is easier to remember items from the beginning or end of a list rather than those in the middle of the list, unless that item is distinctly different.
✓ Practice Effects – Practicing or rehearsing improves retention especially when it is distributed practice. By distributing practices the learner associates the material with many different contexts rather than the one context afforded by mass practice.
✓ Transfer Effects – The effects of prior learning on learning new tasks or material.
✓ Interference Effects – Occurs when prior learning interferes with the learning of new material.
✓ Organization Effects – When a learner categorizes input such as a grocery list, it is easier to remember.
✓ Levels of Processing Effects – Words may be processed at a low-level sensory analysis of their physical characteristics to high-level semantic analysis of their meaning. The more deeply a word is process the easier it will be to remember.
✓ State Dependent Effects – If learning takes place within a certain context it will be easier to remember within that context rather than in a new context.
Retrieval
When information is needed a search is initiated as follows:
o A search is conducted in long-term memory.
o When the information is found, it is retrieved.
o The information is sent to a response generator, another mechanism which organizes a suitable response.
o The response generator sends the signal to effectors, body parts such as the hands or eyes, which carry out the action.
The mind observes the effect of its performance and prepares itself to repeat the process as appropriate in answer to the response perceived.
How does learning take place in the cognitivist classroom
Piaget
❖ Human intelligence and biological organisms function in similar ways. They are both organized systems that constantly interact with the environment.
❖ Knowledge is the interaction between the individual and the environment.
❖ Cognitive development is the growth of logical thinking from infancy to adulthood.
Vygotsky
✓ Vygotsky’s components of Cognitive Development:
✓ Mastering symbols of the culture and developing the cultural forms of reasoning.
✓ Complex functions begin as social interactions between individuals; gradually acquire meaning and are internalized by the learner.
✓ Speech and other symbols are first mastered as a form of communication and eventually structure and manage a child’s thinking.
✓ Zone of Proximal Development focuses on interactive problem solving.
3.6.8 Pedagogical Implications of Cognitivism Theory to the Teaching and Learning of Science
Relevance of Cognitivism to the teaching of science
Cognitivists believe learners develop learning through receiving, storing and retrieving information.
With this idea, it is important for instructional designers (teachers):
✓ To thoroughly analyze and consider the appropriate tasks needed in order for learners to effectively and efficiently process the information received.
✓ Consider the relevant learner characteristics that will promote or impede the cognitive processing of information.
✓ To do task analysis and learner analysis
✓ To create tests
✓ To create learning materials according to any one of the Instructional Design Models
Learning activities in the cognitivist classroom
✓ Explanations
✓ Demonstrations
✓ Illustrative examples
✓ Gestalt Theory (the whole theory)
✓ Matched non-examples
✓ Corrective feedback
✓ Outlining
✓ Mnemonics
✓ Dual-Coding Theory (The Dual Coding Theory assumes there are two cognitive subsystems, one specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal objects and the other specialized for dealing with language)
✓ Chunking Information (Chunking refers to the strategy of breaking down information into bite-sized pieces so the brain can more easily digest new information.)
✓ Repetition
✓ Concept Mapping (concept mapping is a technique to visualize relationships between different concepts)
✓ Advanced Organizers (they are simply devices used in the introduction of a topic which enable learners to orient themselves to the topic, so that they can locate where any particular bit of input fits in and how it links with what they already know)
✓ Analogies
✓ Summaries
✓ Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivation (According to John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design, there are four steps for promoting and sustaining motivation in the
learning process: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS).
✓ Interactivity
✓ Synthesis
✓ Schema Theory
✓ Metaphor
✓ Generative Learning
✓ Organizational strategies
✓ Elaboration Theory (According to elaboration theory, instruction should be organized in increasing order of complexity for optimal learning.)
Characteristics of the cognitivist classroom
A) Knowledge-ability to remember learned information
Example: The student states the definitions of Cognitivism and Constructionism upon completing this presentation.
B) Comprehension-ability to understand the information learned
Example: The student describes the differences between Cognitivism and Constructivism.
C) Application-ability to apply the new information in concrete situations
Example: The student learns how to use Blooms taxonomy to construct objectives for a class they will teach.
D) Analysis-ability to separate important from non-important information
Example: The student describes the advantages of using objectives to measure learning.
E) Synthesis-ability to reconstruct pieces of information to form new information Example: The student utilizes characteristics of Constructivism and Cognitivism to teach material.F. Evaluation-ability to judge the new information
Example: The student describes if and how the teaching strategy utilizing Cognitivism and Constructivism was effective
I. Signal
II. Stimulus-response
III. Chaining-this includes more than one stimulus-response links
IV. Verbal association
V. Multiple discrimination-which allows for different responses to stimuli
VI. Concept formation-identifying and responding to a class of objects
VII. Principle formation-applying at least one chain of two or more concepts
VIII. Problem solving-processing 2 or more principles
Role of learners in the cognitivist classroom
Role of the teacher in the cognitivist classroom
Implications of Cognitivism in the Science Classroom
In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to learning. When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that the teachers not only create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child. Classrooms are widely diverse and complex.
Students learn differently and are at various developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage their classrooms and establish expectations will be able to incorporate diverse teaching philosophies and create an excellent learning environment for each student.
It is important that teachers create a learning environment that encourages students to do their best and makes learning interesting. This creates a motivational climate within the classroom.
When designing lessons from a behaviorist stance, the designer (teacher) should:
✓ Analyze the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks should be broken down into smaller tasks and learning objectives developed from them.
✓ Evaluation should consist of determining whether the criterion for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer should decide what is important for the learner to know and attempt to transfer that knowledge to the learner.
✓ The learning package should be somewhat of a closed system, though it can allow for some branching and remediation, the learner should be confined to the designer’s “world”.
✓ Carefully assess the current stage of a child’s cognitive development and only assign tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then be given tasks that are tailored to their developmental level and are motivating.
✓ Provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to advance through each developmental stage. This is achieved by creating disequilibrium. Teachers should maintain a proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn through discovery.
✓ Be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end product. For example, the teacher should observe the way a child manipulates play dough instead of concentrating on a finished shape.
✓ Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing others’ views can help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide multiple opportunities for small group activities.
✓ Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children’s learning processes and that the curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.
Strengths of Cognitivism
Weaknesses of Cognitivism
A major weakness of Cognitivism lies in its strength.
➢ Whereas schemas help to make learning more meaningful, a learner is largely at a disadvantage whenever relevant schemas or prerequisite knowledge do not exist. (To account for this, an instructional designer will need to ensure that the instruction is appropriate for all skill levels and experiences. Designing such instruction could be costly and time-consuming).
➢ One additional weakness of Cognitivism is similar to behaviorism. There are only finite, predetermined goals. Having predetermined goals may be in fact desirable for an organization since it offers clear direction and purpose but such a fixed set of expectations can limit the potential of the learning. Learners and instructors may become satisfied with obtaining minimum competencies or carry the attitude that “if it’s not broke, then don’t fix it!” when the learning experience could actually be designed better (McLeod, n.d.)
➢ As with behaviorism, the learner knows a certain way to do things based upon specific
cues, but that way may not always be the best, most efficient, or safest way to do something
in the advent of different environmental stresses or scenarios.
UNIT 3: SUMMARY
The unit covered the following sub-topics:
3.1 Who is a good Learner?
3.2 What is learning?
3.3 Principles of learning:
3.4 Two Main Ways of Learning
3.5 Categories of learning
3.6 Constructivist, Behavioural and Cognitive Theories of Learning
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